Melanotan II raises a handful of sensible questions. This page answers them in order, starting with the fundamentals and moving to applications.
This page was last updated on 2026-02-03 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Early published reports described melanotan-2 as a tanning agent without sun protection, which means darkening is not the same as protection against ultraviolet radiation. Later studies explored the peptide in erectile dysfunction, hemorrhagic shock, and some skin conditions. No regulator in the United States or Europe has approved it for clinical use. Many products labelled melanotan-2 are sold without approval and their identity and purity are unverified. Its long-term safety in humans remains an open question.
Melanotan-2, also written Melanotan II, is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide designed as an analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. Its sequence is Ac-Nle-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-NH2, and the lactam bridge between the aspartate and lysine side chains constrains the peptide into a ring. This structural change increases receptor affinity and metabolic stability relative to the native hormone. The compound was created in the 1980s as a research tool for studying pigmentation biology.
The compound was developed in the late 1980s and 1990s by academic researchers investigating photoprotection. The rationale held that stimulating melanin production might reduce ultraviolet damage to skin and lower skin cancer risk. Early work examined receptor binding, pigment response, and short-term tolerability in small studies. That program did not produce an approved drug, and formal development stalled after early-phase trials. Whether induced pigmentation confers meaningful photoprotection remains an open question.
Outside regulated medicine, melanotan II circulates through online vendors as a research chemical, often marketed for tanning. Products sold this way vary widely in purity, concentration, and labeling accuracy, and independent testing has documented discrepancies. Published reports describe both pigment effects and adverse reactions, including nausea, flushing, and darkening of existing moles. Long-term safety data are sparse, and no large controlled trial has established a risk profile. Questions about cumulative effects on melanocytes remain unresolved in the literature.
Melanotan II is a synthetic peptide analog modeled on alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, a naturally occurring signaling peptide involved in pigmentation. Its structure is a cyclic heptapeptide containing two non-natural substitutions, norleucine at position four and D-phenylalanine at position seven. These modifications resist enzymatic breakdown and extend the molecule's activity relative to the native hormone. The compound binds melanocortin receptors and is studied mainly as a pharmacological tool rather than a therapeutic product. It has never received approval as a medicine in any major jurisdiction.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Compound class | Synthetic cyclic heptapeptide | Alpha-MSH analogue containing a D-phenylalanine residue |
| Molecular formula | C50H69N15O9 | Average molecular mass approximately 1024.2 g/mol |
| Appearance | White to off-white lyophilised powder | Normally supplied as a freeze-dried solid in a sealed vial |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water and polar solvents | Dissolves readily in aqueous buffers and in alcohol-water mixtures |
| Receptor targets | MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, MC5R | Acts as a non-selective melanocortin receptor agonist |
Published pharmacokinetic information is limited and comes mainly from small studies rather than registrational trials. Plasma half-life is usually described as short, on the order of tens of minutes, followed by rapid tissue distribution and clearance of the intact peptide. Metabolites and low concentrations of parent compound have been reported in urine, a detail relevant to anti-doping and forensic testing. Whether repeated exposure changes receptor sensitivity or clearance over time remains an open question. Values differ noticeably between analytical assays, so published numbers should be read as approximate rather than definitive.
Melanotan II is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide with the sequence Ac-Nle-cyclo[Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys]-NH2, corresponding to a molecular formula of C50H69N15O9 and a monoisotopic mass near 1024 daltons. It was designed as a structural analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, a peptide hormone produced by cleavage of proopiomelanocortin. A lactam bridge between the aspartate and lysine side chains closes the ring, and the C-terminal amide removes a free carboxyl group. Both modifications increase resistance to enzymatic degradation compared with the linear parent hormone. Four substitutions distinguish it from afamelanotide, the linear analogue studied under the name melanotan I.
=== Legal basis in Germany === In Germany, the first X-ray regulation (RGBl. I p. 88) was issued in 1941 and originally applied to non-medical companies. The first medical regulations were issued in October 1953 by the Main Association of Industrial Employer's Liability Insurance Associations as accident prevention regulations for the Reich Insurance Code. Basic standards for radiation protection were introduced by directives of the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) on February 2, 1959. The Atomic Energy Act of December 23, 1959 is the national legal basis for all radiation protection legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany (West) with the Radiation Protection Ordinance of June 24, 1960 (only for radioactive substances), the Radiation Protection Ordinance of July 18, 1964 (for the medical sector) and the X-ray Ordinance of March 1, 1973. Radiation protection was formulated in § 1, according to which life, health and property are to be protected from the dangers of nuclear energy and the harmful effects of ionizing radiation and damage caused by nuclear energy or ionizing radiation is to be compensated. The Radiation Protection Ordinance sets dose limits for the general population and for occupationally exposed persons. In general, any use of ionizing radiation must be justified and radiation exposure must be kept as low as possible even below the limit values. To this end, physicians, dentists and veterinarians, for example, must provide proof every five years - by Section 18a (2) X-ray Ordinance.
== Biosynthesis == The peptidoglycan monomers are synthesized in the cytosol and are then attached to a membrane carrier bactoprenol. Bactoprenol transports peptidoglycan monomers across the cell membrane where they are inserted into the existing peptidoglycan.
== Regulation == Post-translational modifications of prolidase regulate its enzymatic abilities. Phosphorylation of prolidase has been shown to increase its activity while dephosphorylation leads to a decrease in enzyme activity. Analysis of known consensus sequence required for serine/threonine phosphorylation revealed that prolidase contains at least three potential sites for serine/threonine phosphorylation. Nitric oxide, both exogenously acquired and endogenously generated, was shown to increase prolidase activity in a time- and dose-dependent manner via phosphorylation at these serine and threonine sites. Additionally, prolidase may also be regulated at tyrosine phosphorylation sites, which are mediated by FAK and MAPK signaling pathways.
Andros Darryl Townsend (born 16 July 1991) is an English professional footballer who plays as a right winger for Thai League 1 club PT Prachuap. A graduate of the Tottenham Hotspur academy, Townsend was initially loaned out to several League One and then Championship clubs alongside limited Tottenham first-team appearances, before making his Premier League debut in September 2012. After further limited appearances and then a half-season loan to Premier League club Queens Park Rangers, Townsend established himself as a Tottenham player between 2013 and 2015. He subsequently fell out of favour at Tottenham, and following a short spell at Newcastle United in the 2015–16 season, he transferred to fellow English side Crystal Palace in the summer of 2016. After five years at Palace, he departed for Everton in 2021, though his time at the club was hampered by a long-term injury sustained in 2022. Upon his release from Everton, in July 2023, he joined Luton Town. Townsend earned his first England cap on 11 October 2013, and made 13 appearances in his senior international career, scoring three goals.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Contraindications == Hypersensitivity to dalbavancin can occur, causing issues such as skin reactions or anaphylaxis. Caution is advised for patients with known hypersensitivity to other glycopeptides. There is currently no data on cross-reactivity between dalbavancin and vancomycin.
=== Death and legacy === Several retrospective sources state that Liu was greatly saddened by Zhou Enlai's death in January 1976 and, according to Guangming Daily, even had himself carried on a stretcher to the Beijing Hospital to bid farewell to Zhou's remains. Having been diagnosed with cancer in 1975, Liu's own health deteriorated shortly after, and he died of his illness in Beijing on June 24, 1976. He was 81. His memorial service was held at the Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery and was presided by Vice Premier and general Chen Xilian. The June 30, 1976 issue of the People's Daily reported that Vice Chairperson Li Suwen delivered Liu's eulogy. According to the eulogy, Liu Wenhui supported Chairman Mao, the Cultural Revolution, the movement to criticize Lin Biao and Confucius, and finally the ongoing campaign against Deng Xiaoping. He had also called for the liberation of Taiwan from Kuomintang rule. Present at his funeral were several politicians including Wu De, Li Jingquan, Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme, and Zhou Jianren, among others. Marshals Zhu De, Ye Jianying, and Liu Bocheng sent wreaths to the funeral, as well as Hua Guofeng and Song Qingling.
Peripheral zone — rich in glycoproteins required for platelet adhesion, activation and aggregation. For example, GPIb/IX/V; GPVI; GPIIb/IIIa Sol-gel zone — rich in microtubules and microfilaments, allowing platelets to maintain a discoid shape Organelle zone — rich in platelet granules. Alpha granules contain clotting mediators such as factor V, factor VIII, fibrinogen, fibronectin, platelet-derived growth factor, and chemotactic agents. Delta granules, or dense bodies, contain ADP, calcium, and serotonin, which are platelet-activating mediators. Membranous zone — membranes derived from megakaryocyte smooth endoplasmic reticulum organized into a dense tubular system that is responsible for thromboxane A2 synthesis. This dense tubular system is connected to the surface platelet membrane to aid thromboxane A2 release.
== End of the Cold War == After the end of the Revolutions of 1989, Gorbachev and President Bush Sr. met on the neutral island of Malta to discuss the events of the year, the withdrawal of the Soviet military from Eastern Europe, and the future course of their relationship. After their discussions, the two leaders publicly announced they would work together for German reunification, the normalization of relations, the resolution of Third World conflicts, and the promotion of peace and democracy (referred to by President Bush as a "New World Order"). Between the Malta Summit and the Dissolution of the Soviet Union, negotiations on several arms control pacts began, resulting in agreements such as START I and the Chemical Weapons Convention; the latter taking several years to fully implement. Additionally, the United States, still believing the Soviet Union would continue to exist in the long term, began to take steps to create a positive long-term relationship. This new relationship was demonstrated by the joint American-Soviet opposition to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. The Soviet Union voted in the United Nations Security Council in favor of Resolution 678 authorizing the use of military force against its former Middle Eastern ally. During the late 1980s, several long-running conflicts in the developing world that had been sustained by Cold War rivalry began to wind down, including wars in Cambodia, Angola, and Nicaragua.
President-elect Trump stated his intentions to revive the immigration policies from his first presidency, including a travel ban on refugees from Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen. Other policies included expulsion of asylum seekers by asserting that they carry infectious diseases, deputization of police officers and soldiers to assist in mass deportations, and the establishment of sprawling detention camps. Trump said "there is no price tag" to carry out these deportations. On November 10, 2024, Trump announced that Tom Homan would be "border czar". While border crossings reached record highs during the first half of the Biden presidency, they fell to lower levels near the end of his term, then dropped even further at the start of Trump's presidency. Shortly after he became president on January 20, 2025, the Trump administration ended services for the app of CBP One, reinstated the national emergency at the southern border, ordered the armed forces to draft plans for deployment, and began the steps towards labeling Mexican drug cartels as terrorist organizations. Trump increased deportation authorities for the Drug Enforcement Administration, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, and the Marshals Service. He gave ICE the power to deport immigrants who had come to the United States legally under Biden administration programs, and established daily deportation quotas to ICE offices.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Battery electrolyte === Chitosan is being investigated as an electrolyte for rechargeable batteries with good performance and low environmental impact due to rapid biodegradability, leaving recycleable zinc. The electrolyte has excellent physical stability up to 50 °C, electrochemical stability up to 2 V with zinc electrodes, and accommodates redox reactions involved in the Zn-MnO2 alkaline system. As of 2022 results were promising, but the battery needed testing on a larger scale and under actual use conditions.
== Plot == The West Berlin office of MI6, under station chief Alec Leamas, has suffered from reduced effectiveness. He is recalled to London shortly after the death of one of his operatives and is seemingly drummed out of the agency. In reality, a carefully staged transformation of Leamas has been arranged by Control, the agency's chief. Appearing to be depressed, embittered and alcoholic, Leamas takes work as an assistant at a local library. There he begins a relationship with his colleague Nan Perry, a young and idealistic member of the British Communist Party. Leamas spends most of his small salary on alcohol, leaving him constantly low on funds. He drunkenly assaults a shopkeeper who refuses him credit and is briefly jailed. His predicament attracts the attention of the East German Intelligence Service, which sees him as a potential defector. Leamas is approached by a series of operatives, each one passing him up the chain of the East German intelligence service, and he expresses a willingness to sell British secrets for money. He eventually flies to the Netherlands to meet an agent named Peters, who decides that his information is important enough to send him on to East Germany. At a German country house, Leamas is introduced to Jens Fiedler, who becomes his main interrogator. Leamas then begins to carry out his secret mission, which is to share information that suggests a high-ranking East German intelligence officer named Mundt is a paid informant of the British.
=== News media === According to the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, among Americans in their late teens and early 20s, the most common sources of news were social media (especially Facebook and YouTube). Even so, they turn towards well-known news outlets to learn more about current events that interest them. A 2019 survey by Barnes and Nobles Education found that The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, CNN, and the USA Today are deemed the most trustworthy news sources by Generation Z. They also found that Generation Z consider traditional print media to be the most trustworthy while words of mouth and what they see on social media to be the least trustworthy. Nevertheless, while Generation Z understands the importance of traditional news agencies, they tend to be less loyal than their parents. Young Americans are concerned about the perceived bias, lack of context, negativity, and sensationalism in the news media. American youths today want news stories that are not only fun and meaningful but also accurate and fair. A 2016 poll by Gallup found a decline in trust in the news media across all age groups since (at least) the 1990s, and people aged 18 to 49 are less likely than those 50 years of age or older to trust the media. While visual story-telling has proven to be popular, 58% of Generation Z still prefer text to videos. This number goes up for people who are older. When asked what they would choose if they could have only one subscription, only 7% picked the news while 37% chose a video service and 15% selected music.
Age over 50 years Dry, non-productive cough on exertion Progressive exertional dyspnea (shortness of breath with exercise) Dry, inspiratory bilateral basal crackles on auscultation (a crackling or popping sound in the lungs during inhalation). Clubbing of the digits, a disfigurement of the finger tips or toes (see image) Abnormal pulmonary function test results, with evidence of restriction and impaired gas exchange. Some of these features are due to chronic hypoxemia (oxygen deficiency in the blood), and are not specific for IPF, they can occur in other pulmonary disorders. IPF should be considered in all patients with unexplained chronic exertional dyspnea who present with cough, inspiratory bilateral basal crackles, or finger clubbing. Assessment of crackles on lung auscultation is a practical way to improve the earlier diagnosis of IPF. Fine crackles, also known as "velcro" crackles are easily recognized by clinicians and are characteristic of IPF. If bilateral fine crackles are present throughout the inspiratory time and are persisting after several deep breaths, and if remaining present on several occasions several weeks apart in a subject aged ≥60 years, this should raise the suspicion of IPF and lead to consideration of an HRCT scan of the chest which is more sensitive than a chest X-ray. As crackles are not specific for IPF, they must prompt a thorough diagnostic process.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. It is a laboratory-made peptide, while the natural hormone is alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, a longer peptide produced by the pituitary gland and by skin cells. Melanotan-2 mimics only a short active region of that hormone and contains non-natural residues such as D-phenylalanine.
No approved regulatory indication exists in major markets. An approval exists for a different peptide, afamelanotide, which is used for a rare photosensitivity disorder called erythropoietic protoporphyria. Melanotan-2 itself remains a research compound with no cleared clinical role.
Melanocortin-1 receptors on melanocytes are the receptor most closely linked to pigment production. The peptide is not selective, however, and also activates melanocortin-3, melanocortin-4, and melanocortin-5 receptors. That lack of selectivity is the usual explanation offered for both its range of observed effects and its off-target effects.
It is a synthetic cyclic peptide designed as an analog of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. It acts on melanocortin receptors and is best known from research into pigmentation. It is not an approved pharmaceutical product.